Teaching concepts

Examples and non-examples

E.g.:The example of solution is salt water and non-example of mixture is pepper and water.

Besides, the following techniques will be useful for teachers in teaching such as the misconception on Calvin cycle (dark cycle) can only operate in the darkness).

Concpet map

For light reaction and Calvin cycle, indeed both of them had involved many steps and students might lost their mind in examine the relationship between light reaction and Calvin cycle. Using an advance organizer will be effective in teaching; it had been indicated energy from sunlight is used to produce ATP and NADPH while Calvin cycle is using both of them to produce high-energy sugars. Hence, Calvin cycle is light dependent.








Image and analogies

Using the images in teaching the will be useful in introducing the topic photosynthesis.
It shows clearly that the intimate interrelated ship between light reaction and Calvin cycle.








Computer simulation

To review the role of NADPH and ATP in the Calvin cycle that serves to produce starch, using a computer simulation is more effective to describe rather than memorizing a series of equations involved. The goal is to help students to build a relationship on the importance of light reactions in Calvin cycle.

Experiment

In addition, an experiment on the need for light in photosynthesis can be carried out among students.

The plant was kept in the dark for 48 hours. The plant (with leaves covered as shown) was then exposed to sunlight for 6 hours. The covered leaves were then tested with iodine.

It is observed that no blue-black color was observed in the leaf covered with card board stencil. A blue-black color was observed in the control leaf without covered with card board stencil.

light reaction does not convert carbon dioxide into a carbohydrate which is an integral part of photosynthesis.

That means, starch is produced in Calvin cycle. Based on the observation of experiment indicated that starch is not exist in the leaf covered with light-proof paper (iodine, brown color will turn to dark blue in the presence of starch), It is then can be concluded Calvin cycle only produce starch in the presence of light.

Classification of Scientific Knowledge

The scientific method is used to generate a database of scientific knowledge. A generally accepted hierarchy of scientific knowledge includes: 

Facts: an idea or action that can be verified.

Concepts:  rules that allow for categorization of events, places, people ideas, etc.

Principles: relationship(s) between/among facts and/or concepts; used to generate if-then statements.

Laws: firmly established, thoroughly tested, principle or if-then statement.

Theories: set of facts, concepts, and principles those organize multiple findings and allow for description and explanation.

The Theory of Constructivism

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget concluded that there were four different stages in the cognitive development of children.

The Information Processing Approach

The cognitive learning theory is represented as an S-O-R paradigm. The organism is treated as an active processor of information.

The stage theory proposes that information is processed and stored in 3 stages.

The Three Primary Processes

I. Encoding. This when the information in our environment is being sensed, perceived or attended to.

II. Storage. After we encode the information, it is stored for either a short or long period of time depending on how we process or encode the said information.

III. Retrieval. The stored information is retrieved when needed in a certain task.

The Three Main Stages of Information Processing

1. Sensory Memory

  

Human body perceives the environment through the senses. These sensations travel to the brain as electrical impulses or synapses. However, these electrical impulses or synapses must be translated in such a way that the brain can understand. This process is called transduction. Sensory Memory, the first main stage of information processing is affiliated with the transduction of energy. 

In this stage, our mind holds the information for extremely brief period of time, since it receives a great amount of information more than it can hold or perceive. This is the reason why attention is very important on this stage. In order for the information to proceed to the next stage, that information must be attended to, or must be familiarized by the thinker. In addition, the duration is different among the senses, like auditory memory is more persistent than visual memory.

2. Short-Term Memory 

  

This memory is also called working memory because this refers to what we are thinking in a certain moment of time. This stage is created if we attend to an external information, a thought that popped in our head, or both.

The capacity of short term memory is said to be 5 plus-minus. This means that STM can hold 3 to 7 chunks or bits of information. The duration of the information while in the STM is dependent on how we organize or practice/repeat that information. Thus, organization and repetition, plus chunking or grouping, can help the information proceed to the next stage, that is the Long-Term Memory.

3. Long-Term Memory 

This is the final stage of memory wherein the information can be stored permanently until needed. Its capacity is limited and its duration is indefinite.

Take note however that these stages are not like that of machines that once turned on, will do the process 1st step, 2nd step, 3rd step, so on and so forth. The processes are said to be controlled and regulated by an executive processing system, more popularly known as metacognition. Metacognition, in simpler terms, is "thinking about thinking"

Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes:

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and interact in shared experiences (Crawford, 1996). According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to higher thinking skills.

The Theory of Behaviorism

Behaviorism is the theory that human nature can be fully understood by the laws inherent in the natural environment.

In the mind of the behaviorist, persons are nothing more than simple mediators between behavior and the environment (Skinner, 1993, p 428).

Russian scientist, Pavlov:  Classical Conditioning (Beginnings of behavioral theory)

 

Pavlov spoke of an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (food) eliciting an unconditioned response (UCR).

When a dog encounters food, saliva starts to pour from the salivary glands. This saliva is needed in order to make the food easier to swallow. The fluid also contains enzymes that break down certain compounds in the food.

Pavlov became interested in studying reflexes when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus.

For example: every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. 

Generalization
– Respond same way to similar stimuli

 Ex: All bells elicit salivation.

 Discrimination
– Responding differently to different stimuli

 Ex: Salivation only with certain tones

Extinction
– Gradual disappearance of learned response

Ex: No salivation if repeatedly bell w/o food

B.F.Skinner:

Operant conditioning

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

– Behavior followed by favorable consequences become more likely

– Behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Operant Conditioning

– Type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

Reinforcement
– Anything that strengthens a desired behavior

– Behavior increases

Positive Reinforcement
 

– Anything that strengthens a desired behavior
– Behavior increases

Negative Reinforcement
– Anything added which strengthens a behavior
– Strengthen a behavior by removing aversive
stimulus


Punishment

 Anything that decreases behavior

 Type I (presentation)
– Presenting aversive stimulus to
decrease behavior (e.g., detention)

 Type II (removal)
– Removing pleasant stimulus to

decrease behavior (e.g., no TV)